Migraine : Migraine is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent moderate to severe headaches often in association with a number of autonomic nervous system symptoms. Migraine is a severe, painful headache that is often preceded or accompanied by sensory warning signs such as flashes of light, blind spots, tingling in the arms and legs, nausea, vomiting, and increased sensitivity to light and sound. Medication Preventive migraine medications are considered effective if they reduce the frequency or severity of the migraine attacks by at least 50%. Guidelines are fairly consistent in rating topiramate, divalproex/sodium valproate, propranolol, and metoprolol as having the highest level of evidence for first-line use. Recommendations regarding effectiveness varied however for gabapentin. Timolol is also effective for migraine prevention and in reducing migraine attack frequency and severity, while frovatriptan is effective for prevention of menstrual migraine. Amitriptyline and venlafaxine are probably also effective. Angiotensin inhibition by either an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor orangiotensin II receptor antagonist may reduce attacks. Botox has been found to be useful in those with chronic migraines but not those with episodic ones.


Angina : Definition: Angina is chest pain or discomfort that occurs when an area of the heart is deprived of oxygen. It is typically described as a crushing or squeezing sensation in the chest and may radiate to the jaw, shoulders, arm or back. It is usually a symptom of underlying heart disease, such as coronary artery disease. Angina can be classified into two i.e Stable Angina and Unstable Angina Stable Angina - Usually results from atherosclerotic plaques in the coronary arteries. Acute attacks of stable angina should be managed with (1) Nitrates - Glyceryl trinitrate, Isosorbide dinitrate (2) Antiplatelet drugs - Aspirin (3) Calcium-channel blockers - Verapamil , Diltiazem,Nifedipine, nicardipine, amlodipine, and felodipine (4) Other antianginal drugs - Nicorandil and Ivabradine Unstable Angina - usually due to plaque rupture and may occur either in patients with a history of stable angina or in those with previously silent coronary artery disease. Unstable angina (UA) (also "c


Hypertension : Hypertension, also referred to as high blood pressure, is a condition in which the arteries have persistently elevated blood pressure. Every time the human heart beats, it pumps blood to the whole body through the arteries. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing up against the blood vessel walls. The higher the pressure the harder the heart has to pump. Hypertension can lead to damaged organs, as well as several illnesses, such as renal failure (kidney failure), aneurysm, heart failure, stroke, or heart attack. The normal level for blood pressure is below 120/80, where 120 represents the systolic measurement (peak pressure in the arteries) and 80 represents the diastolic measurement (minimum pressure in the arteries). Blood pressure between 120/80 and 139/89 is called pre hypertension (to denote increased risk of hypertension), and a blood pressure of 140/90 or above is considered hypertension. Hypertension may be classified as essential or secondary. Essential hypertension is the term for high blood pressure with unknown cause. It accounts for about 95% of cases. Secondary hypertension is the term for high blood pressure with a known direct cause, such as kidney disease, tumors, or birth control pills.


Hyperthyroidism : Hyperthyroidism is a condition in which an overactive thyroid gland is producing an excessive amount ofthyroid hormones that circulate in the blood. ("Hyper" means "over" in Greek). Thyrotoxicosis is a toxic condition that is caused by an excess of thyroid hormones from any cause. Thyrotoxicosis can be caused by an excessive intake of thyroid hormone or by overproduction of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland. TREATMENT Treatment depends on the cause and the severity of symptoms. Hyperthyroidism is usually treated with one or more of the following: • Antithyroid medications • Radioactive iodine to destroy the thyroid gland and stops the excess production of hormones • Surgery to remove the thyroid Medicines called beta-blockers may be prescribed to treat symptoms such as fast heart rate, sweating, and anxiety until the hyperthyroidism can be controlled.


Arrhythmia : DEFINITION Arrhythmia is defined as loss of cardiac rhythm, especially irregularity of heart-beat and is an abnormal cardiac rhythm, usually involving the change in rate or regularity and is monitored by using Electrocardiograph (ECG). PATHOPHYSIOLOGY The blood pushed from ventricles in a controlled sequence of muscle contraction. In cardiac arrhythmia, there will be disturbed in the sequence and in electrical conductivity. Arrhythmias are classified in to differentkinds depending upon the disorders of impulse generation and includes, Premature contraction - Common arrhythmia, which affect large number of people. Caffeine and stress increases the occurrence of premature beats. Tachycardia - An abnormally fast heart beats (more than 100beats/min) ,this can also lead to insufficient blood circulation. Bradycardia- An abnormally fast heart beats (more than 100beats/min). This can also lead to insufficient blood circulation. Atrial fibrillation- A rapid, irregular heart rhythm caused by abnormal electrical impulses that begins in the upper chambers of the heart.In atrial fibrillation the heart rate is even higher i.e. 500 beats/min. Atrial flutter - In atrial flutter the heart rate is 250-350 beats/min, associated with tachycardia.Commonly seen in hyperthyroidism and heart failure. Ventricular fibrillation - Life threatening condition in which the heartquivers very rapidly about 350times/min or more.This leads to rapidly fatal if not reversed by defibrillation.


Migraine : Migraine is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent moderate to severe headaches often in association with a number of autonomic nervous system symptoms. Migraine is a severe, painful headache that is often preceded or accompanied by sensory warning signs such as flashes of light, blind spots, tingling in the arms and legs, nausea, vomiting, and increased sensitivity to light and sound. Medication Preventive migraine medications are considered effective if they reduce the frequency or severity of the migraine attacks by at least 50%. Guidelines are fairly consistent in rating topiramate, divalproex/sodium valproate, propranolol, and metoprolol as having the highest level of evidence for first-line use. Recommendations regarding effectiveness varied however for gabapentin. Timolol is also effective for migraine prevention and in reducing migraine attack frequency and severity, while frovatriptan is effective for prevention of menstrual migraine. Amitriptyline and venlafaxine are probably also effective. Angiotensin inhibition by either an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor orangiotensin II receptor antagonist may reduce attacks. Botox has been found to be useful in those with chronic migraines but not those with episodic ones.


Angina : Definition: Angina is chest pain or discomfort that occurs when an area of the heart is deprived of oxygen. It is typically described as a crushing or squeezing sensation in the chest and may radiate to the jaw, shoulders, arm or back. It is usually a symptom of underlying heart disease, such as coronary artery disease. Angina can be classified into two i.e Stable Angina and Unstable Angina Stable Angina - Usually results from atherosclerotic plaques in the coronary arteries. Acute attacks of stable angina should be managed with (1) Nitrates - Glyceryl trinitrate, Isosorbide dinitrate (2) Antiplatelet drugs - Aspirin (3) Calcium-channel blockers - Verapamil , Diltiazem,Nifedipine, nicardipine, amlodipine, and felodipine (4) Other antianginal drugs - Nicorandil and Ivabradine Unstable Angina - usually due to plaque rupture and may occur either in patients with a history of stable angina or in those with previously silent coronary artery disease. Unstable angina (UA) (also "c


Hypertension : Hypertension, also referred to as high blood pressure, is a condition in which the arteries have persistently elevated blood pressure. Every time the human heart beats, it pumps blood to the whole body through the arteries. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing up against the blood vessel walls. The higher the pressure the harder the heart has to pump. Hypertension can lead to damaged organs, as well as several illnesses, such as renal failure (kidney failure), aneurysm, heart failure, stroke, or heart attack. The normal level for blood pressure is below 120/80, where 120 represents the systolic measurement (peak pressure in the arteries) and 80 represents the diastolic measurement (minimum pressure in the arteries). Blood pressure between 120/80 and 139/89 is called pre hypertension (to denote increased risk of hypertension), and a blood pressure of 140/90 or above is considered hypertension. Hypertension may be classified as essential or secondary. Essential hypertension is the term for high blood pressure with unknown cause. It accounts for about 95% of cases. Secondary hypertension is the term for high blood pressure with a known direct cause, such as kidney disease, tumors, or birth control pills.


Hyperthyroidism : Hyperthyroidism is a condition in which an overactive thyroid gland is producing an excessive amount ofthyroid hormones that circulate in the blood. ("Hyper" means "over" in Greek). Thyrotoxicosis is a toxic condition that is caused by an excess of thyroid hormones from any cause. Thyrotoxicosis can be caused by an excessive intake of thyroid hormone or by overproduction of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland. TREATMENT Treatment depends on the cause and the severity of symptoms. Hyperthyroidism is usually treated with one or more of the following: • Antithyroid medications • Radioactive iodine to destroy the thyroid gland and stops the excess production of hormones • Surgery to remove the thyroid Medicines called beta-blockers may be prescribed to treat symptoms such as fast heart rate, sweating, and anxiety until the hyperthyroidism can be controlled.


Arrhythmia : DEFINITION Arrhythmia is defined as loss of cardiac rhythm, especially irregularity of heart-beat and is an abnormal cardiac rhythm, usually involving the change in rate or regularity and is monitored by using Electrocardiograph (ECG). PATHOPHYSIOLOGY The blood pushed from ventricles in a controlled sequence of muscle contraction. In cardiac arrhythmia, there will be disturbed in the sequence and in electrical conductivity. Arrhythmias are classified in to differentkinds depending upon the disorders of impulse generation and includes, Premature contraction - Common arrhythmia, which affect large number of people. Caffeine and stress increases the occurrence of premature beats. Tachycardia - An abnormally fast heart beats (more than 100beats/min) ,this can also lead to insufficient blood circulation. Bradycardia- An abnormally fast heart beats (more than 100beats/min). This can also lead to insufficient blood circulation. Atrial fibrillation- A rapid, irregular heart rhythm caused by abnormal electrical impulses that begins in the upper chambers of the heart.In atrial fibrillation the heart rate is even higher i.e. 500 beats/min. Atrial flutter - In atrial flutter the heart rate is 250-350 beats/min, associated with tachycardia.Commonly seen in hyperthyroidism and heart failure. Ventricular fibrillation - Life threatening condition in which the heartquivers very rapidly about 350times/min or more.This leads to rapidly fatal if not reversed by defibrillation.