Bronchitis : Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchi (the larger and medium-sized airways that carry airflow from the trachea into the more distal parts of the lung parenchyma) Treatment Conventional treatment for acute bronchitis may consist of simple measures such as getting plenty of rest, drinking lots of fluids, avoiding smoke and fumes, and possibly getting a prescription for an inhaled bronchodilator and/or cough syrup. In some cases of chronic bronchitis, oral steroids to reduce inflammation and/or supplemental oxygen may be necessary.


Pharyngitis : Pharyngitis is defined as an infection or irritation of the pharynx or tonsils. The etiology is usually infectious, with most cases being of viral origin and most bacterial cases attributable to group A streptococci (GAS). Other causes include allergy, trauma, toxins, and neoplasia. GAS pharyngitis is usually a self-limited disease, and most signs and symptoms resolve spontaneously in 3-4 days. If administered early, antibiotics can shorten the duration of the illness by up to 1 day, but the main reason they are given is for prevention of acute rheumatic fever. Empiric antimicrobial therapy must be comprehensive and should cover all likely pathogens in the context of the clinical setting. Antibiotics are indicated for clinically suspected and culture or antigen-verified GAS infection. Common antibiotics for pharyngitis include amoxicillin,cephelexin, azithromycin,erythromycin, ceftriaxone etc. Steroids (such as dexamethasone) have been found to be useful for severe pharyngitis. Analgesics such as NSAIDs and acetaminophen can help reduce the pain associated with a sore throat.


Meningitis : Meningitis is an acute inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known collectively as the meninges. The inflammation may be caused by infection with viruses, bacteria, or othermicroorganisms, and less commonly by certain drugs. Meningitis can be life-threatening because of the inflammation's proximity to the brain and spinal cord; therefore, the condition is classified as a medical emergency. TREATMENT Short-term antibiotic prophylaxis is another method of prevention, particularly of meningococcal meningitis. In cases of meningococcal meningitis, prophylactic treatment of close contacts with antibiotics (e.g.rifampicin, ciprofloxacin or ceftriaxone) can reduce their risk of contracting the condition, but does not protect against future infections. Resistance to rifampicin has been noted to increase after use, which has caused some to recommend considering other agents. While antibiotics are frequently used in an attempt to prevent meningitis in those with a basilar skull fracture there is insufficient evidence to determine whether this is beneficial or harmful. This applies to those with or without a CSF leak. Hydrocephalus (obstructed flow of CSF) may require insertion of a temporary or long-term drainage device, such as a cerebral shunt. Antibiotics - Empiric antibiotics (treatment without exact diagnosis) should be started immediately, even before the results of the lumbar puncture and CSF analysis are known. The choice of initial treatment depends largely on the kind of bacteria that cause meningitis in a particular place and population. For instance, in the United Kingdom empirical treatment consists of a third-generation cefalosporin such as cefotaxime or ceftriaxone. In the USA, where resistance to cefalosporins is increasingly found in streptococci, addition of vancomycin to the initial treatment is recommended. Chloramphenicol, either alone or in combination with ampicillin, however, appears to work equally well. Empirical therapy may be chosen on the basis of the person's age, whether the infection was preceded by a head injury, whether the person has undergone recent neurosurgery and whether or not a cerebral shunt is present. In young children and those over 50 years of age, as well as those who are immunocompromised, the addition of ampicillin is recommended to cover Listeria monocytogenes. ; some antibiotics have inadequate penetrance and therefore have little use in meningitis. Most of the antibiotics used in meningitis have not been tested directly on people with meningitis inclinical trials. Rather, the relevant knowledge has mostly derived from laboratory studies in rabbits. Tuberculous meningitis requires prolonged treatment with antibiotics. While tuberculosis of the lungs is typically treated for six months, those with tuberculous meningitis are typically treated for a year or longer. Steroids Adjuvant treatment with corticosteroids (usually dexamethasone) has shown some benefits, such as a reduction of hearing loss, Adjuvant corticosteroids have a different role in children than in adults. Though the benefit of corticosteroids has been demonstrated in adults as well as in children from high-income countries, their use in children from low-income countries is not supported by the evidence; the reason for this discrepancy is not clear. Even in high-income countries, the benefit of corticosteroids is only seen when they are given prior to the first dose of antibiotics, and is greatest in cases of H. influenzae meningitis, the incidence of which has decreased dramatically since the introduction of the Hib vaccine. Thus, corticosteroids are recommended in the treatment of pediatric meningitis if the cause is H. influenzae, and only if given prior to the first dose of antibiotics; other uses are controversial. Viral meningitis typically only requires supportive therapy; most viruses responsible for causing meningitis are not amenable to specific treatment. Viral meningitis tends to run a more benign course than bacterial meningitis. Herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus may respond to treatment with antiviral drugs such as aciclovir, but there are no clinical trials that have specifically addressed whether this treatment is effective. Mild cases of viral meningitis can be treated at home with conservative measures such as fluid, bedrest, and analgesics. Fungal meningitis, such as cryptococcal meningitis, is treated with long courses of high dose antifungals, such as amphotericin B and flucytosine. Raised intracranial pressure is common in fungal meningitis, and frequent (ideally daily) lumbar punctures to relieve the pressure are recommended,or alternatively a lumbar drain.


Tonsillitis : Tonsillitis is inflammation (swelling) of the tonsils. Tonsillitis is inflammation (swelling) of the tonsils most commonly caused by viral or bacterial infection. Symptoms may include sore throat and fever. When caused by a bacterium belonging to the group A streptococcus, it is typically referred to as strep throat. The overwhelming majority of people recover completely, with or without medication. In 40%, symptoms will resolve in three days, and within one week in 85% of people, regardless of whether streptococcal infection is present or not. Causes The tonsils are lymph nodes in the back of the mouth and top of the throat. They normally help to filter out bacteria and other germs to prevent infection in the body. A bacterial or viral infection can cause tonsillitis. Strep throat is a common cause. The infection may also be seen in other parts of the throat. One such infection is called pharyngitis. Tonsillitis is very common, especially in children. Symptoms • Difficulty swallowing • Ear pain • Fever, chills • Headache • Sore throat - lasts longer than 48 hours and may be severe • Tenderness of the jaw and throat Treatment Treatments to reduce the discomfort from tonsillitis symptoms include: • pain relief, anti-inflammatory, fever reducing medications (paracetamol/acetaminophen and/or ibuprofen) • sore throat relief (warm salt water gargle, lozenges, dissolved aspirin gargle (aspirin is an anti inflammatory, do not take any other anti inflammatory drugs with this method), and iced/cold liquids) If the tonsillitis is caused by group A streptococcus, then antibiotics are useful with penicillin or amoxicillin being primary choices. Cephalosporins and macrolides are considered good alternatives to penicillin in the acute setting. A macrolide such as erythromycin is used for people allergic to penicillin. Individuals who fail penicillin therapy may respond to treatment effective against beta-lactamase producing bacteria such as clindamycin or amoxicillin-clavulanate. Aerobic and anaerobic beta lactamase producing bacteria that reside in the tonsillar tissues can "shield" group A streptococcus from penicillins. When tonsillitis is caused by a virus, the length of illness depends on which virus is involved. Usually, a complete recovery is made within one week; however, symptoms may last for up to two weeks. Chronic cases may be treated with tonsillectomy (surgical removal of tonsils) as a choice for treatment. The following tips may help your throat feel better: • Drink cold liquids or suck on popsicles • Drink fluids, especially warm (not hot), bland fluids • Gargle with warm salt water • Suck on lozenges (containing benzocaine or similar ingredients) to reduce pain (these should not be used in young children because of the choking risk) • Take over-the-counter medications, such as acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen to reduce pain and fever. Do NOT give a child aspirin. Aspirin has been linked to Reye syndrome. Some people who have repeated infections may need surgery to remove the tonsils (tonsillectomy)


Urinary tract infection : A urinary tract infection, or UTI, is an infection of the urinary tract. The infection can occur at different points in the urinary tract including: • Bladder -- an infection in the bladder is also called cystitis or a bladder infection. • Kidneys -- an infection of one or both kidneys is called pyelonephritis or a kidney infection. • Ureters -- the tubes that take urine from each kidney to the bladder are only rarely the site of infection. • Urethra -- an infection of the tube that empties urine from the bladder to the outside is called urethritis. Causes Most urinary tract infections are caused by bacteria that enter the urethra and then the bladder. The infection most commonly develops in the bladder, but can spread to the kidneys. Women tend to get them more often because their urethra is shorter and closer to the anus than in men. Because of this, women are more likely to get an infection after sexual activity or when using a diaphragm for birth control. Menopause also increases the risk of a UTI. The following also increase your chances of developing a UTI: • Diabetes • Advanced age and conditions that affect personal care habits (such as Alzheimer's disease and delirium) • Problems emptying the bladder completely • Having a urinary catheter • Bowel incontinence • Enlarged prostate, narrowed urethra, or anything that blocks the flow of urine • Kidney stones • Staying still (immobile) for a long period of time (for example, while you are recovering from a hip fracture) • Pregnancy • Surgery or other procedure involving the urinary tract Symptoms The symptoms of a bladder infection include: • Cloudy or bloody urine, which may have a foul or strong odor • Low fever in some people • Pain or burning with urination • Pressure or cramping in the lower abdomen or back • Strong need to urinate often, even right after the bladder has been emptied If the infection spreads to your kidneys, symptoms may include: • Chills and shaking or night sweats • Fatigue and a general ill feeling • Fever above 101 degrees Fahrenheit • Pain in the side, back, or groin • Flushed, warm, or reddened skin • Mental changes or confusion (in the elderly, these symptoms often are the only signs of a UTI) • Nausea and vomiting • Very bad abdominal pain (sometimes) Treatment • A simple UTI can be treated with a short course of oral antibiotics. You should also remember to drink plenty of liquids, especially around the time of a UTI. • If the UTI is a complicated UTI, then a longer period of antibiotics is given and usually is started intravenously in the hospital. After a short period of intravenous antibiotics, then the antibiotics are given by mouth for a period up to several weeks. Kidney infections have usually been treated as a complicated UTI.